![]() In short, X-rays were an important means by which humans could, at will, change “the hereditary material” so “that evolution could then be speeded up” (Lönnig 2005, 47). When Muller confirmed that mutations can deliberately be caused by X-rays, he formally proposed that they can be used to irradiate animals and plants to increase the evolution rate. Thus the Darwinian theory becomes implemented, and freed from the accretions of directed variation and of Lamarckism that once encumbered it (Muller 1946, 162). The excitement this discovery produced in the scientific community was so great that the Nobel Prize in Physiology was awarded to Muller in 1946 “for the discovery of the production of mutations by means of X-ray irradiation.” In his Nobel lecture Muller wrote: Not only is this accumulation of many rare, mainly tiny changes the chief means of artificial animal and plant improvement, but it is, even more, the way in which natural evolution has occurred, under the guidance of natural selection. Lastly, he attempted to measure and evaluate the number of mutations in the offspring (Muller 1927). His experiments involved placing fruit flies in petri dishes, turning on his X-ray tube, then mating the flies that survived. He soon reasoned that he could drastically speed up evolution by artificially creating new mutations by X-rays. Muller discovered that X-rays could increase the mutation rate in living organisms by as much as 100 times. Hermann Joseph Muller (1890–1967) knew that evolutionists believed “gene mutations formed the chief basis of organic evolution, and therefore of most complexities in living things” (Muller 1927). ![]() The two views are one for the customer and one for a parent or spouse. Within months of the publication of Roentgen’s paper detailing his discovery, X-rays were beginning to be used for applications ranging from hospitals to shoe stores where they helped to determine how well shoes fit the customers’ feet (fig. In 1895, German physics professor Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays, a highly ionizing form of radiation that is most familiar to the public for its use in the medical field (fig. His idea was eventually united with natural selection and formed the revised evolution theory called Neo-Darwinism, which is the term accepted today by most evolutionists. Hugo de Vries also proposed that mutations are heritable and, therefore, are passed down to successive generations (de Vries 1909, 1910). Rather, they were caused by the sudden appearance of new genetic variations, an alteration he named “mutations”. Around 1900, Dutch botanist Hugo de Vries (1848–1935) proposed that new species were not formed by slow changes that produced continuous variations in life as Darwin taught. The problem he faced was not survival of the fittest, but the arrival of the fittest. When Darwin developed his theory of evolution, he was unable to propose a viable mechanism that produced genetic variety from which natural selection could select. Indeed, mutations are accidents” (Sniegowske, et al. mutations are accidents, and accidents will happen. Sniegowske added “ mutation is the ultimate source of the genetic variation. As acknowledged by one of the leading evolutionists of the last century, Theodosius Dobzhansky, the gene changes caused by mutagens, known as mutations, are the major source of evolutionary diversity (Sadava et al. In short, the raw material for natural selection is random mutations because it is the source of genetic variety that powers evolution. Mutations are changes in the DNA code caused by mutagens, including carcinogens such as tobacco smoke, and radiation such as cosmic rays. DNA both builds animal bodies and is the hereditary material that is passed on to future generations. Evolution requires new genetic variety and natural selection to preserve the beneficial additions and helpful changes, and also eliminate the deleterious genetic changes. ![]() The genetic code used to produce protein is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Skin, muscles, enzymes, hormones, and all organs are constructed primarily of protein. Keywords: mutations, genetic entropy, entropy, genetic variety, evolution, Nobel Prize, x-rays, radiation, cancer, birth defects, blunders in evolution.
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